Wednesday, November 27, 2019
An Investigation of the Influence of Organisational Culture on Project Management The WritePass Journal
An Investigation of the Influence of Organisational Culture on Project Management Research Objectives An Investigation of the Influence of Organisational Culture on Project Management Research ObjectivesIntroductionExtra References:Related Research Objectives To explore the link between organisational culture and project management. To evaluate the impact of organisational culture on innovation and project management success. To formulate recommendations on the impact of organisational culture on the management of projects. Introduction This literature review explores the main issues surrounding the influence of organisational culture in the management of projects within the National Health Service and financial institutions (banks). The literature review will also review the available guidelines that assist project managers in tackling the identified issues. To this end, this review will draw on a series of landmark studies in the current body of literature in order to facilitate a structured and critical analysis of the ways in which organisational culture influences project management. Firstly, in order to address this question, the term â€Å"organisational culture†needs to be defined. The enquiry into â€Å"culture†first began at the end nineteenth century (Deshpande and Webster, 1989; Reigle, 2003; Bertho et al., 2001). However, there has been no single, universal definition of organisational culture. Marshall and Marshall (1993) define organisational culture as a melting pot of beliefs, rules, actions, regulations, and attitudes that guide behaviour in an organisational context. In this way, every organisation has its own organisational culture that is formed by its members (Cleland Ireland, 2006). An organisation’s culture can also be formed through the different rites, rituals and the expected patterns of communication and behaviour within the organisation (Mullins, 2007).                   A more conventional way of defining culture, however, is the procedure by which things are carried out and achieved in a given organisation. For example, Atkinson (1990) offers a definition of organisational culture as a set of underlying processes that influence the way in which work is performed. Researchers such as Kilman et al., (1985) and Sackman (1991) corroborate this view and see culture as â€Å"the way we do things around here†. In this way, every organisational culture carries its own modus operandi tha t has positive and negative aspects. For the purposes of this project, this will be the definition that shall guide the literature review and following study.                                                               Considerable research has suggested a significant influence of organisational culture on project performance, and the subsequent success of organisations (Yazini, 2009; Brown, 2008; Andersen et al., 2009). For example, a number of studies have shown that organisational culture influences specific project organisational culture, such as goal planning, employee commitment to project goals, and the performance of project teams (Stare, 2011). Organisational culture can also exert its influence on organisational processes that include decision-making, design, structure, motivation, job-s atisfaction and management control (Pheysey, 1993). Moreover, organisational culture has also been found to influence the â€Å"sub culture†of a project team as indicated in research by Kerzner (2001) who found that organisational culture can impact the trust, connection and co-operation within a project team. Organisational culture can also critically influence innovation, group effectiveness and achievement, and the overall success of an organisation (Reigle, 2001).                                       However, project management has also been found to play a critical role in an organisation’s success. For example, Tidd and Bessant (2009) found that the commitment level of top management is linked with the innovation of an organisation. Moreover, project management is important in maintaining a balance between a team’s culture and an organisa tional culture. In the current times of economic instability, project management is needed to allow individuals to accomplish their individual goals and aspirations as well as the objectives and goals of a project. Moreover, whilst an organisational culture can change, adapt and evolve over time, individuals are often more resistant to change, especially if organisational changes have not been adequately explained to them and they are ignorant of the benefits to the organisation (Cleland Ireland, 2006). In these cases, a project manager is needed to step in and motivate his/her team so that the change takes place smoothly.                   Given the importance of both organisational culture and project management on the success of an organisation, a limited amount of research has indirectly drawn links between organisational culture and project management. For example, Shore (2008) hypothesised that the way in which projects a re carried out is deeply influenced by both the project leader, but also the way in which the organisation performs its work. Schein (1991) also suggested that individuals within an organisation cannot create a new organisational culture, but can contribute to its evolution over time. Consequently, an organisation can learn to embrace a completely different modus operandi and adopt a novel way of doing things. However, these kinds of transformations demand high degrees of tolerance and acceptance of change. These changes also often require organisations to be open to deviating from traditional norms and operating in flexible and adaptive ways. In such cases, the role of effective project management is essential, as it is needed to equip others with skill-sets in which they can face changes in the organisational culture. Similarly, Mullins (2007) noted that every organisational culture differs from one region to another, and therefore, the project management must be formulated in suc h a way that it is able to adjust to these changes and explore opportunities for development.                                                                                               Moreover, for an organisation to be successful in the management of projects, the project team culture must hold values, principles, procedures and management philosophies that are in line with the organisation’s culture (Cleland Ireland, 2006). In other words, there must be equality within the organisational culture. Cultural equality ensures that the management of projects is consistent with the organisational culture that supports a project’s advancement and success. However, this consistency will not exist unless senior managers are able to develop and communicate a vision that effective project management is important, worth doing, and actively supports the use of resources to accomplish project objectives, (Cleland Ireland, 2006).                                                                                                       Due to the aforementioned strong links between organisational culture and project management, some researchers have modified the definition of organisational culture to be a reflection of management authority (Cartwright, 1999). In other words, this definition proposes that an organisational culture that is widely accepted, can help employees alig n themselves with their organisation, internalise the organisation’s beliefs as their own and motivate employees to achieve the organisation’s objectives (Cartwright, 1999).            This research therefore, begs the central question of whether organisational culture impacts the management of projects. In line with this question, research by Pinto (2010) has revealed four different ways in which organisational culture can influence project management. Firstly, culture impacts the ways in which teams and departments communicate and interact with each other when faced with tasks and goals. Secondly, organisational culture influences the attitudes that employees hold towards project goals. Thirdly, culture affects the planning that takes place in preparation for a project. Finally, culture impacts the ways in which managers evaluate project team performance and a project’s success. Using this research as a grounding framew ork, the current study addresses the paucity of research on the impact of organisational culture on project management and aims to delve further into an understanding of the different ways in which culture exerts its impact using an inductive approach. The findings may, in turn, make significant theoretical and applied contributions. In the former case, the research will provide support for a previously under-studied topic. In the latter case, a greater emphasis on project managers in relation to the organisational culture may challenge the â€Å"not invented-here†mind-set (Tidd Bessant, 2009) in which organisations resist change and fail to see the potential of new ideas and inventions. By understanding the relationship between organisational culture and project management, this research will point to the mechanisms such as training of the necessary staff and effective communication that will accommodate changes and bring about enthusiasm, commitment and a sense of involve ment for all employees and managers (Tidd Bessant, 2009). Extra References: Andersen, E. S., Grude, K. V., Haug, T. (2004). Goal directed project management: effective techniques and strategies. London: Konan Page. Brown, C. J. (2008). A Comprehensive Organisational Model for the Effective Management of Project Management. South African Journal of Business Management, 39(3), 1-10. Kerzner, H. (2001). Strategic Planning for Project Management: Using a Project Management Maturity Model. New York: John Wiley Sons. Pinto, J. K. (2010). Project Management: Achieving Competitive Advantage. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Saturday, November 23, 2019
How Radio Waves Help Us Understand the Universe
How Radio Waves Help Us Understand the Universe Humans perceive the universe using visible light that we can see with our eyes. Yet, theres more to the cosmos than what we see using the visible light that streams from stars, planets, nebulae, and galaxies. These objects and events in the universe also give off other forms of radiation, including radio emissions. Those natural signals fill in an important part of the cosmic of how and why objects in the universe behave as they do. Tech Talk: Radio Waves in Astronomy Radio waves are electromagnetic waves (light), but we cant see them. They have wavelengths between 1 millimeter (one-thousandth of a meter) and 100 kilometers (one kilometer is equal to one thousand meters). In terms of frequency, this is equivalent to 300 Gigahertz (one Gigahertz is equal to one billion Hertz) and 3 kilohertz. A Hertz (abbreviated as Hz) is a commonly used unit of frequency measurement. One Hertz is equal to one cycle of frequency. So, a 1-Hz signal is one cycle per second. Most cosmic objects emit signals at hundreds to billions of cycles per second. People often confuse radio emissions with something that people can hear. Thats largely because we use radios for communication and entertainment. But, humans do not hear radio frequencies from cosmic objects. Our ears can sense frequencies from 20 Hz to 16,000 Hz (16 KHz). Most cosmic objects emit at Megahertz frequencies, which is much higher than the ear hears. This is why radio astronomy (along with x-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared) is often thought to reveal an invisible universe that we can neither see nor hear. Sources of Radio Waves in the Universe Radio waves usually are emitted by energetic objects and activities in the universe. The Sun is the closest source of radio emissions beyond Earth. Jupiter also emits radio waves, as do events occurring at Saturn. One of the most powerful sources of radio emission outside of the solar system, and beyond the Milky Way galaxy, comes from active galaxies (AGN). These dynamic objects are powered by supermassive black holes at their cores. Additionally, these black hole engines will create massive jets of material that glow brightly with radio emissions. These can often outshine the entire galaxy in radio frequencies. Pulsars, or rotating neutron stars, are also strong sources of radio waves. These strong, compact objects are created when massive stars die as supernovae. Theyre second only to black holes in terms of ultimate density. With powerful magnetic fields and fast rotation rates, these objects emit a broad spectrum of radiation, and they are particularly bright in radio. Like supermassive black holes, powerful radio jets are created, emanating from the magnetic poles or the spinning neutron star. Many pulsars are referred to as radio pulsars because of their strong radio emission. In fact, data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope showed evidence of a new breed of pulsars that appears strongest in gamma-rays instead of the more common radio. The process of their creation remains the same, but their emissions tell us more about the energy involved in each type of object. Supernova remnants themselves can be particularly strong emitters of radio waves. The Crab Nebula is famous for its radio signals that alerted astronomer Jocelyn Bell to its existence. Radio Astronomy Radio astronomy is the study of objects and processes in space that emit radio frequencies. Every source detected to date is a naturally occurring one. The emissions are picked up here on Earth by radio telescopes. These are large instruments, as it is necessary for the detector area to be larger than the detectable wavelengths. Since radio waves can be larger than a meter (sometimes much larger), the scopes are typically in excess of several meters (sometimes 30 feet across or more). Some wavelengths can be as large as a mountain, and so astronomers have built extended arrays of radio telescopes. The larger the collection area is, compared to the wave size, the better the angular resolution a radio telescope has. (Angular resolution is a measure of how close two small objects can be before they are indistinguishable.) Radio Interferometry Since radio waves can have very long wavelengths, standard radio telescopes need to be very large in order to obtain any sort of precision. But since building stadium size radio telescopes can be cost prohibitive (especially if you want them to have any steering capability at all), another technique is needed to achieve the desired results. Developed in the mid-1940s, radio interferometry aims to achieve the kind of angular resolution that would come from incredibly large dishes without the expense. Astronomers achieve this by using multiple detectors in parallel with each other. Each one studies the same object at the same time as the others. Working together, these telescopes effectively act like one giant telescope the size of the whole group of detectors together. For example, the Very Large Baseline Array has detectors 8,000 miles apart. Ideally, an array of many radio telescopes at different separation distances would work together to optimize the effective size of the collection area as well improve the resolution of the instrument. With the creation of advanced communication and timing technologies, it has become possible to use telescopes that exist at great distances from each other (from various points around the globe and even in orbit around the Earth). Known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), this technique significantly improves the capabilities of individual radio telescopes and allows researchers to probe some of the most dynamic objects in the universe. Radios Relationship to Microwave Radiation The radio wave band also overlaps with the microwave band (1 millimeter to 1 meter). In fact, what is commonly called radio astronomy, is really microwave astronomy, although some radio instruments do detect wavelengths much beyond 1 meter. This is a source of confusion as some publications will list the microwave band and radio bands separately, while others will simply use the term radio to include both the classical radio band and the microwave band. Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.
Thursday, November 21, 2019
Operational Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Operational Research - Essay Example The numerous techniques of operations research include mathematical optimization, statistical analysis and mathematical simulation. Because of their capability to assist in decision making, operations research techniques are more often employed in manufacturing companies. These techniques have been employed to determine the most suitable places to locate new facilities such as a factory or a warehouse, identifying appropriate development paths for sections of the telecommunications. One of the most applied operations research techniques is linear programming. The use of linear programming was first proposed in 1951 to institute least-cost mixtures of livestock rations and food stuffs. This linear program reduces the expense of the mixture while some identified levels of nutritional necessities symbolize the model’s constraints. Additionally, in 1954, linear programming was proposed as a way of solving crop rotation problems (Hayashi, 2007: 21). In this case, the objective func tion symbolizes the gross margin linked to the cropping pattern while constraints link to the accessibility of capital such as land, machinery, and working capital. The idea of the use of linear programming has been used extensively in planning and managing agricultural resources on a farm. Extension of linear programming engross binary and integer platforms for applications in which it is not reasonable to allocate incessant values to the decision variables, for instance, the number of tractors and labour workers. The inter-temporality essential to many agricultural resolutions, particularly those entailing perennial crops, has necessitated the use of multi-period models. Risk and uncertainty calls for methods such as dynamic programming, Markov chains and Monte Carlo Simulation (Cheema, 2005: 43). Brazil is a huge producer of sugarcane, alcohol fuel and sugar. In order to keep the production
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